Globalización

The globalización is a essentially economic trial that capitalist world consists of the increasing integration of the different national economies in a single market.

The globalización is defended by the neoliberalism incarnated in international institutions WTO, the IMF and BM and is rejected by the groups antiglobalización.

He is debatable to relate the globalización to an extra-economic dimension (human). But to do it would include it global issues like: climate change, cultural imperialism against multiculturalismo, immigration and Internet.

Etimología

Certain authors consider in Spanish the term more suitable mundialización, gallicism derived from the French word mondialisation, instead of globalización, anglicism coming from English globalization, since in “global” Spanish she is not equivalent to “world-wide”, as yes it happens in English.

Nevertheless, the Dictionary of the Spanish Royal Academy registers the entrance “globalización”, understood like the “tendency of the markets and the companies to extend, reaching a global dimension that exceeds the national borders” (DRAE 2006, 23ª editing), whereas the entrance “mundialización” is not in the Dictionary, although are gliding to include it.

History

The history of the companies, especially the European, from the passage of Cristóbal Columbus in 1492 sample that the vast majority has had solid expansive vocations. This gave rise to a series of empires. During that period, the political and economic theory that it as much governed the reports between the empires as those of the metropolis towards the colonies was the mercantilismo, that the competition by a finite amount of wealth estimates, which “it forced” to a strict control of the commerce. This caused voltage between the colonial powers, from where the necessity was born to look for adjustments among them. Thus, for example, in 1494, in the first global treaty of history, Spain and Portugal they distribute the world to be conquered, dividing it according to the Treaty of Tordesillas.

Later, independentistas movements cause fín of that colonial initial period of the Modern Age. The lesson learned by Great Britain after the loss of its colonies in North America was that the international trade can contribute prosperity, even in the absence of colonial dominion. The mercantilismo was replaced by new theories: laissez-faire economic and the political and social liberalism of Adam Smith and their successors. That new vision contributed during the Forties and the fifty of century XIX to the extension of the model of International division of labor, assigning to Europe production of manufactured goods and to the nonEuropean countries the production of raw materials, guiding itself by the theory of the comparative advantage developed by David Ricardo, generating therefore an immense capital accumulation that gave impulse to the industrial capitalist system.

In the area of the international trade, mercantilista protectionism is replaced by the free trade. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels describes in 1848 east period, that some students have denominated like the first wave of mundialización:

The bourgeoisie, when exploding the world market, gives to the production and to the consumption of all the countries a cosmopolitan seal. Between the moans of the reactionaries it destroys the national foundations of the industry. The old woman national industries come to ground, coiled by other new ones, whose restoration is vital problem for all the civilized nations; by industries that no longer transform like before the raw materials of the country, but the brought ones of the most distant climates and whose products find exit not only within the borders, but in all the parts of the world. They sprout new needs that no longer they are enough to satisfy, like formerly, the fruits of the country, but they demand for his satisfaction remote ground products. No longer that one local and national market reigns that was also enough and where nothing of outside entered; now, the network of the commerce is universal and her they enter, united by bonds of interdependence, all the nations. And what occurs with the material production, it also occurs with the one of the spirit. The spiritual products of the different nations come to form a common heap. The limitations and peculiarities of the national character are happening to background, and local and national Literatures come together all in a universal Literature.
The bourgeoisie, with the fast improvement of all the means of production, with the incredible facilities of its communications network, takes to the civilization until the wildest nations. The low price of its merchandize is the heavy artillery with which it collapses all the walls of China, with that forces to capitulate to the wilder Barbarian tribes in its hatred against the foreigner. It forces all the nations to embrace the regime of production of the bourgeoisie or to perish; it forces them to implant in his own bosom the call civilization, that is to say, to become bourgeois. It creates a world made to his image and similarity. (Manifest of the Communist Party)

Nevertheless, this situation began to change in the Seventies of century XIX. The commercial difficulties of Great Britain were become serious in the 1873-96 “Long Depression”, a prolonged period of deflación, which lead to the abandonment of the free trade between the European powers (in Germany from 1879 and France from 1881). This brought about a new colonial period as well. The European powers colonized ample regions of the Middle East, Africa, Asia, etc. sometimes moving nonEuropean empires. This caused new voltages between the colonial powers what it took as well to new attempts of adjustments among them. In 1904. England and France sign restrictive practice cordiale and the USA declares the Corollary Roosevelt to Doctrina Monroe

The new protectionistic wave ended at two bloody world wars, that caused to great sufferings to the towns and enormous damages to the economies, taking to the retraction of the volume and the importance of the international flows of commerce. During those dates the Russian Revolution takes place in 1917 that establishes the first communist state: the Soviet Union. Nevertheless the wars do not solve the other core problems of the world economy of the time: the cyclical fluctuations or cyclical Crises of the economic activity, in relatively short periods of expansion followed by recession. Most well-known of these it is the great depression of 1929.

Towards this period end, between the two wars, one begins to accept in the capitalist nations the notion of which the State has one double fundamental role in the proper functioning of the economy: one in assuring the prosperity the population and the other in avoiding the cycles of growth and recession. The bases for the appearance of the Welfare state are created therefore `(to see John Maynard the Keyneses and New Trato)

In 1945, shortly before finalizing World War II, the United Nations, still in constitution trial, they realize a Financial Conference in Bretton Woods (the USA), where it is decided to create the Monetary Fund the International and the World Bank. Shortly after, in 1947, one signs the General Agreement on Tariffs and Commerce (GATT), predecessor of the WTO. In the related thing to development policies, the Marshall Plan is implemented

Nevertheless, when finishing the war, the world dividio in two great political-economic blocks: the capitalist block with the indisputado leadership of Member States and the communist block (COMECON) with the leadership also indisputado of the Soviet Union. The atomic power whereupon counted both blocks exposed to the Humanity to the danger of a nuclear war and, for the first time, to the possibility of autodestruir itself like species. This danger produced the call cold war, and increase brings back to consciousness of common destiny like species.

On the other hand, the towns of the European colonies initiated a series of fights of decolonization or national liberation that culminated in the creation of more than 100 new independent nations. Many of these countries preferred not to align themselves in no of those two blocks. A Developing world surfaced then that was organized like Movement of Countries nonAligned that, still maintaining certain report with one or both blocks, stayed neutral in the global confrontation. This sector put in practice a series of policies in order to obtain its economic development many of which were based on the principle of Industrialization by substitution of imports

In that period the countries capitalist were reorganized, guided by the agreements of the GATT, in the OECD. The internal product of that block expanded and at the same time the Multinational emergencia the pre-eminence of the “corporations” or Companies was seen, with great economic and political power and that move to the companies of the classic Capitalism that as much Smith as Marx knew

Sometimes historically, the blocks practiced protectionism in relation to the other and with their own allies. Between the capitalist and communist blocks the reason is obvious. But both as well looked for to manipulate loyalties of the members of the third-world group through the concession or negation of economic reports. As well, the third-world ones tried to avoid that report that was described like of neo-colonial dependancy or trying to arrive at the economic self-sufficiency.

Nevertheless, a new crisis that began in the middle of the decade of the sixty (to see estanflación), worsened by the 1973 oil crisis brought about a radical reorganization of the economy, founded on the intense promotion of the technological innovation (TIC), the policy reform of development (to see Consensus of Washington) and attempts to dismantle of the Welfare state, that I arrive to be seen like - in the words of Margaret Thatcher - a “state nursemaid”, sofocador of the liberties and restringidor of the capacity to escojer of the individuals.

The 9 of November of 1989, the fall of the Wall of Berlin took place, abriendo way to the implosion of the Soviet Union in 1991 and the disappearance of the communist block.

As of that moment a new historic stage began: the globalización.

Its nature

In the delineated scene some thinkers and politicians (for example, Friedrich Hayek and Milton Friedman whose ideas found expression in the governments of Pinochet; in Chile (in which I call “an experiment”) Reagan (1981-1989) in the USA and Thatcher (1979-1990) in Great Britain) found or necessary or advisable to carry out a strong criticism from a neoliberal point of view and Conserve-Liberalism to previous forms partner-political and economic, that they consequently considered restrictor estatizantes and as much of the individual liberties as of the economic and social development, proposing new forms in order to create a favorable terrain for its expansion, which in fact resulted in the generation of new interrelations between the economic factors and markets worldwide (consuming, natural work, appeals, financial investments, etc.). By their characteristics, the Multinational Companies are in optimal situation to take advantage of the new scene.

The globalización in itself is a continuous trial and dynamic, that defies the laws not only of the developing countries, with respect to elements such as protection to workers, protection of environmental pollution and forms to regulate the operation of corporations that, although they can employ to the vacated skilled labor, also can benefit from irregularities and lasting weaknesses in a particular country. It is easy these companies simply to transfer his centers from production to places in which them of the maximum of facilities. It is also a challenge to the projects of development of the countries, especially for which they are developing, because not only it considers any inimica state operation as to the interests of those companies (in the measure that such plans imply regulations and demand taxes and other appeals) but also that it asserts that the same idea of the social development as it puts and governmental or state target precluye the individual freedom and distorts so much the company as the market. (to see for example paretiana position in: }

These were you rule of a first moment in this new socioeconomic report. It is possible to be observed, like example, that the high production costs in the developed countries, that coming together with an openness of the countries of the Eastern east, especially China and India, to the capital markets and its inclusion like members of the World organization of Comercio (OMC), were in the massive transfer of the industrial production from Europe and the USA to those or other countries that offered favorable conditions but to the increase of the profits of those international companies.

That phenomenon is producing, in second half of the first decade of the 21st century, a profound change in the reports of powers between the countries, which as well produces a slow crisis or decay in the countries that were considered developed, Thus, for example, in the USA this second period, that began during the government of president George W Bush with the intention to reaffirm on the other, to the USA like American Pax “to be able world-wide establishing one” " based on the American dominion on the one hand of the world economic system and its military superiority. But the reality has been that the economy of that country has acquired the greatest balance of payments deficit in the history of the world, which takes to the devaluation of its currency and decay of its rates of saving and investment to it, which means as well that country begins to depend on the external investment and enters a prolonged period of “semi recession”; whereas at the military level its army is flooded in Iraq and Afghanistan, in a war that is arriving to be seen like inganable in military terms Even more serious for that country, their political practices move away every day more of the pragmatic consensuses (especially in external policy) that predominated during the ascent and world-wide predominance of the USA which makes difficult the solution of its problems and puts its leadership at issue

To level of culture, the increase of the physical and virtual intercommunication, has increased and facilitated east trial. The physical interconnection is based on the masificación of the transport. The virtual interconnection is based exclusively on the technology, for example, Internet. This has taken to two contradictory results: on the one hand the centralization of administrative control and politician to corporative government levels and has been facilitated enormously. On the other, one has facilitated of equally enormous way the dissemination of ideas critics and the communication concerning ordinary citizens and currents, that previously were for their investigation at the mercy of established Means or they could not respond fast and indeed to decisions affected that them (to see, by ejmeplo: Ciberactivismo)

In this last sense, it is possible to write down two exemplary moments: when government Spanish of moment tried to obtain benefit political of attack terrorist three day before selection, selection that lost when the public of that country communicated directly to each other to express his rejection to that manipulation, through electronic means and leaving of side the official press and means. The other example has been the antiglobalizantes meetings - by example, the World-wide Forum Social that have taken place from the beginning of the 21st century, when the leaders of the developed countries meet in which still he is known indeed like “meetings summits” because he is excluded from them the great majority of citizens.

A final point of interest is the economic growth to world level from the introduction of the trial. According to developed data of the IMF, all the countries and many of which they are developing, they have undergone a sustained growth of its economies, which is and is allowing the incorporation of hundreds of million inhabitants to the modern economies. This is generally the used justification but for the globalización.

Arguments for the globalización

• The libertarianos and other proposers of laissez-faire capitalist say that high levels of political and economic liberties, in the form of democracy and Capitalism, have been valuables aims in if same in the developed world and have also produced high levels of material wealth. They see in the globalización a beneficial trial of extension of the freedom and Capitalism.

• Those that supports the Free trade as much proclaim that the increase of the economic prosperity as of opportunities, especially in the developing countries, it would increase the civil liberties and it would take to an allocation of more efficient appeals. The economic theories of the comparative advantage suggest the free market produces such effective allocation of appeals, to greater profit of all the countries that are surrounded. Generally, this leads to price reduction, but uses, increase in the production and of standards of living especially for which they live in developing countries.

• There are also the calls “globalistas” or “mundialistas”, that proposes a “democratic globalisation”. They think that the initial stage of the globalización, oriented to the market or economic subjects, she must be followed by a global stage of institution building political that represent the visions or aspirations of the “world-wide citizen” Its difference with another “globalistas” is that they do not define an ideology in advance to orient this will, leaving it to the will of those citizens through a democratic trial

• Proposers of the globalización you argue that the movement anti-globalización is protectionistic and uses precise and anecdotal evidence to support its visions, whereas the statistical sources provide strong support to the globalización:

• Even though that disputes some it, the inequality of the enter world level seems to be decreasing, like the economist Xavier Room-i-Martin argument in 2007 -. Leaving of side that is right, it is possible to be alleged that but important it is the measure of absolute poverty: if all lived in the misery, the very low inequality of income serious.

• From 1981 to the 2001, according to figures of the World Bank, I number of people who live with a dollar or less than entrance to the day has declined in absolute terms of thousand five hundred million people to thousand one hundred million. At the same time, the world population increase. Therefore, in percentage terms the number of such people I decline in the developing countries from 40% to 20%. of the population. with the majors diminutions taking place in the economies that have reduced but to the barriers to trade and investment. Nevertheless, some critics notice that serious advisable to use detailed measures but of the poverty.

• The percentage of people who live less than in two dollars of entrance to the day has fallen in areas affected much by the globalización, whereas the rates of poverty have remained stable in other areas. In Asia of the East, including China, that percentage has decayed in 50,1%, compared with an increase of the 2,2% in sub-Sahara Africa.

Source: World Bank, Poverty Estimates, 2002

• The life expectancy has almost bent in the developing countries from World War II and this beginning to cut to the distance between her and the one of the developed countries, where the improvement has been smaller. Even in the countries of sub-Sahara Africa, the developed region less, the life expectancy has increased of less than 30 years before that war to around 50 years before the AIDS pandemic and others would begin to again reduce it to the present level of around 47 years. Child mortality has decreased in all the regions of the developing world.

• The presence of the democracy has increased dramatically: from a position in which few nations with universal suffrage in 1900 habian very to be present in a 62.5% of all the countries in the 2000.

• The rights of women (to see .feminism) have advanced. Even in area such as Bangladesh they estan obtaining access to works that provide stability and economic independence.

• The proportion of the world population who lives in countries in which provicion of foods per capita is minor who 2,200 calories or 9.200 kilo joules by person per day I fall less than from 56% in 1960 to 10% in 1990.

• Between 1950 and 1990. the rate of world-wide alphabetization increase from 52% in 81%. The women have represented much of that growth: the rate of feminine alphabetization, like percentage of the masculine one, increase of 59% in 1970 in 80% in the 2000.

• There is tendencies similar with regard to access to electricity, judicial rulings, radium, telephones, etc, at the same time as an increasing proportion of the population with access to drinking water.

• The percentage of minors in the labor force is fallen from a 24% in 1960 to 10% in the 2000.

• Indur M. Goklany, in its book 'The Improving State of the World also finds evidence that those, and others, measured of the human well-being estan improving and that the globalización is part of the explanation. Also it looks for to respond to the argument that the Environmental impact would limit that progress.

• Other authors, such as Canadian senator Douglas Roche, simply sees the inevitable globalización as and argues in favor of creating institutions such as a Parliamentary Asemblea of the United Nations chosen in order to supervise and to control the international action of bodies and nonelect institutions.

• Even though that the critics of the globalisation complain that this implies a predominance of the western culture (or occidentalisacion) a report of the year 2005 of UNESCO sample that the cultural exchange this becoming in both directions. In the 2002, China was the third country in exports of cultural goods, behind of Great Britain and the USA. Between 1994 and the 2002, the proportion of those exports of as much North America as Europe decayo, while the exports of Asia grew until exceeding the North American.

The proposers of the globalisation hard criticize some current policies in developed countries. In particular, the subsidies to agriculture and the protectivas tariffs in those countries. For example, almost half of the budget of the European Union is used in agricultural subsidies, in its majority, to the great companies and industrialisadas farms that constitute a powerful lobby. Japan, on the other hand, concedio to its agricultural sector 47 billions of dollars in the 2005. almost four times the amount that it gave in Official development aid. The USA gives to 3,900 million dollars every year to their cotton agricultural sector, that includes 25 thousand farmers, three times superior to the complete budget of USAID for the 500 million inhabitants of Africa `These policies exhaust the appeals of the contributors and increases the consumer price in the developed countries, diminishes the competition and efficiency, avoids the exports of efficient agriculturists but and other sectors in the developing countries and socaba the industries in which the developed countries have comparative advantages. Thus, the barriers to trade not only make difficult the economic growth of the developing nations, which has a negative effect in the general standards of living.

The globalización from a critical point of view

Elements to consider

In the economic thing

• The widespread opening of the markets of goods and regional capitals that suggests the aim of the trading blocks, treaties and economic independence of the countries but at the same time facilitates the capacity to solve economic needs that local plaintiffs have been incapable to satisfy.

• The increasing Privatization of the economic sectors, next to the height of the multinational company and the decay of national companies and state.

• The increased competition (economy) that on the one hand increases the amount and quality of products and on the other threatens the working conditions (including wages) and sobrexplotacion of environmental pollution

• The irregulado access from the countries to the international markets, which on the one hand facilitates the sale of its products and the acquisition of technologies and merchandize and promotes uses on the other and desproteje those of smaller economic caliber and takes to the abandonment on organized attempts to promote progress and social justice.

In the cultural thing

• The cultural exchange that threatens a loss in the integrity of the cultures or identities participant country nationals versus the opportunity to diversify and to enrich the customs.

• Conflict between the conceptions of the culture like “civilization” or “High Culture” versus the extension of the “Culture of the Common Man” or popular culture)

• The possibility of the reflorecimiento of regional or folkloric cultures and individual values versus the homogenization product of masificacion and internationalization of means

• The reinforcing of brings back to consciousness of “human community” versus the acritica acquisition of cultural elements of dominant companies.

• Possible overvaluation of the social material by on or the moral thing versus the satisfaction of minimum material needs of broad sections.

In the politician

• The possible decay of the nationalism and sprouting of the internationalism

• The political power of companies on the countries.

• the generalization of the democracy and the state of law like predominant forms of government to world level versus the resurgence of areas and periods of deep political instability due, on the one hand, to the lost one of being able on the part of the governments (producing the calls failed states) and, on the other, to the rejection which it is seen like western conceptions make policy.

• The gradual diminution in the migratory controls, that can take to the perdidad of the sectors but described and innovating (to see brain drain) and the “invasion” of international enterprise elites in poor countries.

Necessary consideration

The globalización is a complex phenomenon, deberia not to be surprise therefore that brings about different reactions between different individuals or groups. For some, like the Canadian senator, it threatens the same structure of the “Nation been” and the modern concept of democracy whereas for others, such as those in favor of political Islam, looks for to impose nonIslamic political structures (that is to say, the democracy) on countries reject that it. For others, the national identity threatens whereas others - by Mario example Vargas Llosa they see that identity like an imposed construction that it looks for to obliterate individual differences and local cultures for the sake of an artificial unit. Others even see the trial like simply a continuation or even worsening of explotativos trials, direct result of capitalist neocolonialism, while for another threat the aim of that predominance. For some, it promises a new era of wealth for all, for others, such as Eduardo Galeano is the seduction of a consumerismo that ruined economic and morally to the majority (to also compare with the position of the Catholic Church)

Before making a criticism it is necessary to consider an aspect fundamental: the difference between which the apoyadores of the trial propose and the way that those proposals have been or estan being implemented. The free trade of the globalización not only talks about to the free movement of capitals but also to the free movement of goods and people. Therefore the globalistas consider unacceptable, like has been seen, the customs barriers and preferential treatments that the developed countries impose or practice when therefore it agrees to them. The same objections are applied to the barriers of all type to the migration and movement of the workers: as the appeals be wild rationally or the companies can to derive the maximum from profit of the system when conditions prevail that are lately irrational in economic terminos? Parafrazeando the criticismo that towards of the marxism, podria to say that the globalización only works well in theory.

Equally complicated it is the analysis of some of the phenomena that accompany the trial. For example, Bernard-Henri Lévy, a French intellectual has written recently, in The Guardian an influential liberal newspaper of English left, in response to a article in New York Times that I proclaim that the French culture lacks importance in the modern world, that the article is but revelatory of the situation in the USA that in France. Accepting that the French culture does not have these days the importance that tapeworm, for example, before the world wars and which in fact the culture of the USA is in the present the dominant one, it alleges that “That article is really about the USA and what sucedera perhaps when the Castilian increasing power of Chinese and the other Asian languages means that the Anglo-American is not the language of formulates it and of the universal translation” Bernard-Henri Lévy finds that the article is less about France than “a wild reflection of the state of the same North American culture” with its forgotten and marginalized artists and intellectuals, that they had and they must to fight for “to be made listen to in a company that like all this designed to resist its emergencia”.

Outline of criticisms

Given the previous thing, it is necessary to clarify that this outline is mainly to the trial so what has been implemented, the call Consensus of Washington especially as the recommendations and practices of the IMF and BM are expressed among others in.

• One first critic comes from the theoreticians of the same globalización. Since it has been seen, these as much are against to the barriers and ties to the movement of goods as of people who the governments who say to follow the policies globalización impose on products and people of other countries. Equally questionable they are the subsidys and other protectionist measures that those countries use. In that sense, one has affirmed that the institutions of the “Consensus” are to the service of their shareholders majors (that is to say, the USA) and not to the one from those who it was created to benefit.

• Another critic that can be adducted is that if we accepted the suggestion of the proposers of the globalización that as much the democracy as Capitalism were the sources of the economic prosperity of the developed countries, it follows that the roll that the state exerted at national level in the emergencia of that prosperity it needs to be talked back not only to the country level which they are integrated to the system but also to the international and some proposers of the globalización Even recognize this (even though that is argued that the democracy by itself does not promote the economic growth is possible to consider that the origin of the present levels of development economic and Social welfare in certain countries must to considerations policies that take control urgent of the expansion and deepening of the democracy - to perhaps see “You originate and Evolution” in State of well-being can suggest although the mere democracy does not produce prosperity, once both become presents create a system of positive feedback)

• One third critic, this time of opponents to the trial, suggests its proposers is had and been, on the one hand, taking control of the results of the action of third parties and on the other, misinterpreting the facts - including distorting basic the statistical data - in order to propagate its ideas:

a) The specialist in terms of development, Dra Amsden, aims for example that - in Latin America comparing the periods from 1950 to the 1980 and from 1980 to the 2000, all the countries grew more express before the Consensus of Washington (before 1980) that after that year.

b) The advances, for example, in the rights of women, diminution in child mortality, increase in the rates of education, etc, not must to the globalización but to the often state action and in others to citizen groups organized either in unions or NGOs that they have had to fight hard, and against the same forces that now proclaim those profits, to obtain them. In other words, the advances have been in their majority state result of proposals and citizen activism or policies, not to the adoption of the policies of the Consensus.

Like example of previous, the National Council of Voluntary Organizations of the United Kingdom in its report of year 2007 it indicates especially that I publish of that country I donate in that year the approximated amount of 9 thousand five hundred million pounds sterling (approximately 19 billions of dollars) for individual programmes of aid through NGOs, many of which concentrate in programs of environmental action and programs to diminish the poverty, in Africa. Contrástese those figures with those of the official aid of individual governments, given more above. For an example of the type of surrounded organizations and its activities, to see Oxfam and

c) The most remarkable diminutions in the rates of absolute poverty have taken place in countries such as India and China, that they have not followed the policies of the consensus of Washington: even though that has been integrated to the world market, they have not privatized nor deregulated massively his economies. In countries that have followed faithfully prescriptions of the IMF and BM, such as those of Latin America and Africa, that decrease has been or much smaller or even negative. (it nótese that in the table but above integration to the international market is considered, nonadhesion to the policies of the IMF, etc)

• In addition, it is possible to be mentioned that the diminution in the rates of relative poverty in countries that apply the policies of the IMF does not seem to be being obtained thanks to the diminution of the ends in the distribution of the entrance, but thanks to the loss of income of the classes employees of industrialized countries and the pauperización of the middle classes, in countries especially developed and of average incomes, such as those of Latin America. who are lacking now of the security systems and support that enjoyed, for example, in education, medicine, insurances, state pensions of retirement and other servicos, etc. The merger of property to world level continues and it accentuates itself, which deberia not to be surprise, since in second half of the student Nineties of the past century some of the policies of the development - by example, Michael P Todaro “Economic Development-” warned that the presence of multinational companies in developing countries could turn out in the long term impoverishment from those countries due to the displacement from local enterprises, diversion of resources local in order to serve to lucrative markets but in other regions and the export as profits, etc.

• The policies as much of the Consensus of Washington as of the rest of the proposers of the globalización they suggest serious possible to obtain levels of prosperity economic to world level similar to which is seen in Europe or the USA. This presumption is questionable, especially from an ecological point of view (to see: The limits of the growth)

Landmarks of the globalización

Moment of its beginning

Pablo Vázquez indicates that the globalización current process is part of an initiated greater trial in 1492 with the conquest and colonization of great part of the world on the part of Europe. Marshall McLuhan maintained already in 1961 that the electronic mediums were creating a global village. Rüdiger Safranski emphasizes that from the explosion of the atomic bomb in Hiroshima in 1945 a united global community was born in the terror to holocausto world-wide. Also the beginning of the globalización to the invention of the chip (12 of September of 1958), the arrival of the man to the Moon, that it agrees with the first world-wide transmission via satellite (20 of 1969 July), or the creation of Internet have been associated (1 of September of 1969). But generally the beginning of the globalización in the disappearance of the Soviet Union and the communist block is located that it headed. Although the autodisolución of the Soviet Union took place the 25 of December of 1991, it has become general to symbolize it with the fall of the Wall of Berlin the 9 of November of 1989.

World Economic Forum (Forum of Davos)

The World Economic Forum, tamén known like Forum Davos, is a private foundation created in 1971 with the mission to annually reunite in the Davos mount from Switzerland to the main leaders European economies. From 1991 summit of the political leaders and more powerful industralists of the world is transformed into the meeting. He is one of the strategic main focuses of the globalización. It has his it soothes in Geneva and it is supervised by the Swiss government.

Fukuyama and the aim of history

In July-September of 1989 the political economist American Francis Fukuyama publishes a titled article the aim of History, where she maintains that “what we could be seeing is not only the end of the Cold War, or of a particular period of post-war period, but the aim of history like so: that is to say, the final point of the historical development of the humanity and the universalización of the western liberal democracy like the final form of human government”. The writer, the article and mainly the phrase of their title are going to be a constant reference point to favor and against the globalización. Nevertheless, from an historical point of view, and starting off of the base that the engine of history is the conflicts, Fukuyama falls in an error granting to him the category of “total or planetary victory” to a period that the deepening only means, in wider scales that before, of the capitalist system. Just a short time “history” in showing to Fukuyama its error took: the insurrection of the EZLN to the south of Mexico (1994), the multitudinal protests anywhere in the world cora the globalización, the rise of the mst in Brazil, between many others, showed that, in that sense, “history” continues enjoying “good health”.

The Consensus of Washington

In November of 1989 the American economist John Williamson included in a working document a list of ten policies that considered accepted by the economic groups more or less with soothes in Washington and it titled the Consensus of Washington. With the years one became the program of the globalización.

1. Fiscal discipline
2. Reordering of the priorities of the public spending
3. The Tax Reformation
4. Liberalization of the interest rates
5. A competitive exchange rate
6. Liberalisation of international trade (trade liberalization)
7. Direct foreign liberalization of the inward investment
8. Privatization

Creation of the WTO

The creation in 1995 of the World organization of Comercio (OMC) is one of the decisive moments of the globalización. To be integrated by the majority of the countries of the world population: intellectual property, regulation of companies and capitals, subsidies, treaties of free trade and economic integration, regime of commercial services (especially education and health), etc.

Economic crises: tequila, dragoon, vodka, samba, tango

The speed and freedom reached about the capitals to enter and to leave countries and companies are associate to a series of crisis local echo-financiers of overall impact. First of the series one took place in Mexico in 1994/1995 and its overall impact knew like effect Tequila. Later the Asian crisis in 1995/1997 (effect Dragoon), the Russian crisis in 1998 (effect Vodka), the Brazilian crisis in (1998/1999 Samba effect) and the crisis in Argentina in 2001/2002 took place (effect Tango).

The repeated economic crises have generated an ample discussion on the role played by the Monetary Fund the International.

Arrest of Pinochet and creation of the International Criminal Court

In October of 1998 the ex--dictator of Chile, Augusto Pinochet, was arrested in London accused in Spain by torture and terrorism. The 24 of March of 1999 the Court of the Lores of the United Kingdom solved that Pinochet could be extradited, although extradition was not finally completed due to the supposed dementia of the commander. The fact is outstanding like a turning point in the globalización of the human rights.

Simultaneously in 1998 the Statute of Rome was signed creating the International Criminal Court, that in force entered the 1 of 2002 July after to reach the amount of necessary ratifications. In 2003 the penal Court the International was constituted. The main problem for the operation of the same is the position of the Member States, opposed its jurisdiction.

Accession of China in the WTO

In 2001 (Round of Doha) and after 15 years of tough negotiations, China enlisted in the WTO. This way the country more colonizing with the world (22% of the Humanity), fifth world economy and the one of increased growth in the last 30 years, was gotten up totally to the world market. The enormous displacements of capital and work that the Chinese economy is causing, as well as the consequences for the global system that will have the entailment of a gigantic and mighty economy of “socialist market” (to also see market socialism) with the system capitalist world, are discussed enthusiastically by the students worldwide. A broad consensus of which exists nevertheless China, and its increasing economic leadership in Asia, is driving an historic process that will be determining during the 21st century and the direction of the world-wide globalización.

The 11 of September of 2001

The attacks of the 11 of September of 2001, against the World-wide Center of Commerce (World Trade Center) of New York and the Pentagon, transmitted live by the global imprisonments of television all the Humanity, acquired a world-wide meaning.

As of that moment, the international fight against terrorism and the defense of the national security of the Member States, will acquire a high-priority hierarchy in the global agenda, it will propose the necessity to restrict the human rights to guarantee the security, and will reinstate the value of the State.

Nevertheless, it is necessary to observe the impact in the international community of this phenomenon, that repelled at global level of almost immediate way, initiating action like the Invasion of Afghanistan or the border closure of Member States and the European Union.

The bankruptcy of Enron and the bubble of “the new” economy

The 2 of December of 2001 the bankruptcy of the Enron company shook to the economic world: few months before the Fortune magazine had awarded to the company like most creative of last the five years, and had assured that it would have a continuous growth during all the decade.

The criminal acts to the detriment of shareholders, workers and the community put all the system of deregulation at issue that characterized to the globalización and gave to an strong impetus to the idea of social responsibility industralist (RSE).

The revolts in Paris and the migrations

In the disturbances of France of 2005, in November, French thousands of young, children of originating immigrants of North Africa, carried out during two weeks a revolt that had its seal in the burning fire of thousands of automobiles in Paris. In the region of Paris, more than half of the smaller population of 15 years, she is original of Africa, which has given an upset to the culture of the zone in less than a generation.

The event surprised the world and put on the rug the social and territorial question of the international migrations and inequalities in the globalización.

New governments in Latin America

From the last months of century XX, a series of governments type begins again to prevail in the South American choices of countries.

• In 1998, Venezuela chooses to the leftist of the Party Movement V Republic Hugo Chávez.
• In 2002, Brazil chooses president to the union leader Lula da Silva of the leftist Workers Party.
• In 2003, Argentina chooses president the Peronist of leftist tendency Néstor Kirchner.
• In 2004, Uruguay chooses the Socialist Tabaré Vázquez of the Extended front.
• In 2005, Bolivia chooses to the indigenous unionist Evo Morales.
• In 2006, Ecuador chooses to the leftist economist Rafael Belt
• In 2006, Nicaragua chooses president to Daniel Ortega Saavedra of sandinista tendency.
• In 2006, Chile chooses to the Socialist Michelle Bachelet like president.
• In 2007, Argentina chooses In front to Cristina Kirchner like president by the Party for the victory.

Alternative Globalización

This ideology promulgates that the globalización cannot only be seen like a trial impelled and controlled by multinational companies (EMNs) and the elites integrated by the richest and powerful people of the world. In century XIX, trade unionism was already conceived as “internacionalist” a global movement as it gives to account the 1 of May, like day of world-wide mobilization of the workers. During Century XX an enormous amount from movements and social organizations of global projection arise: human rights, .feminism, consumer protection, environmental pollution, pacifism, the hippies. In the same way a heterogenous cultural angular momentum is satisfied in Century XIX and mainly in Century XX, like global currents: the impressionism, the expresionismo, the dadaísmo, the surrealismo, the rock and roll, the punk, rap, karate like way of life (and not only karate but generally martial arts taking us to the roots samurai), the fashion, the new games of network, culture MGP (not in reference only to music, but to the popular thing generally), the world of the sports in general (separated in different branches like surf, motoring that also has several branches, the cycling, skate that have become a form of expression, etc.), the graffitti that also is a form of expression (very known those Banksy against Capitalism), etc.

From the same moment at which the globalización like historic process begins, a critical view to the call surfaces “corporative” globalización, that begins to be developed confusedly and inorganically in a very heterogenous environment, integrated by intellectuals and organizations of all type: policies, union, ecological, feminists, natives, farmers, journalistic, of human rights, consumers, etc.

That movement made appearance the 30 of November of 1999 in which the battle of Seattle has been called. That thousand of people summoned by an unpublished alliance between the union movement environmental organization and, day ten and more than 1,500 organizations, they were mobilized against the WTO and they made fail the call Round of the Millenium to the shout of “Of whom it is the street? Ours! Of whom it is the world? Ours”.

Probably the most representative expression of this heterogenous movement is the World Social Forum, with their expressive motto “Another world is possible”. Between the individuals, personalities and intellectuals whom they integrate this movement by an alternative globalización is possible to find an not organized housewife, worker or a pensioner, happening through college students, professors and professionals of all level, intellectuals like Noam Chomsky and Arundhati Roy, Nobel prizes like Jose Saramago, university professors like Carlos Taibo and Thomas Ward, journalists like Naomi Klein, Ignacio Ramonet or Eduardo Galeano, ecologists like Vandana Shiva, the subcommander Marks of the EZLN or the French farmers Jose Bové.

Although also antiglobalización has been called, the term is inadequate then, as George says to Susan: “I reject the word antiglobalización that the mass media attribute to us. The combat occurs, in fact, between that we want an inclusive globalización, cradle in the cooperation and the security, and those that want that all the decisions take the market”. We will point a series of groups that could participate in the movement by an alternative globalización: unionists, NGOs, Communists, ecologists, basic, pacifist protectionists, anarchists, Christians, feminists, and many partisan ones, etc.

They watch Etxezarreta indicated in his Seminary of Critical Economy that “the neoliberal globalisation is well simple to apply: to liberalize the commerce and the flows of capitals, in such a way that it is possible to be dealt with them without no control, anywhere in the world, that nobody can put conditions to them; to privatize because they affirm determined - clear that without no evidence that all the public is little efficient, to make flexible the labor market - is to say, to turn to the workers into a variable cost being able to contract them the wages that to the company seems to him suitable and to dismiss them when he agrees to them; and finally, to deregulate, that is to say, to eliminate all the public regulations of the economic and social life so that they can settle down their own rules”. Robert Velasco, university professor of economy applied of the UPV indicates that “the ultraliberal illusion of the globalización of a self-sustaining planet by the markets has vanished before the risk of electoral reverse of the political leaders of turn or conjuncturally delicate an economic situation”.

The movements of alternative globalización maintain that the globalizing trial could have general advantages for people of the world. In that sense these are some of the basic issues:

• Fair trade.
• Industrialization of the Developing world and improves of its economies:
  • Cancellation of the foreign debt of the poorest countries.
  • Tobin rate, that burdens with a tax under (for example 0.1%) each financial transaction, penalizing therefore the speculative movements, and investing that in the Development of poor countries.
  • To diminish the military expenditure and to eradicate the tax fraud. In the rich countries these measures could serve to dedicate more money to the development and to try to surpass or to approach famous 0.7% of the GIP, percentage given by the UN.
• Freedom of movement: They maintain that after which the European migrated during several centuries to all parts of the world, it just does not turn out now to restrict the migration of workers towards Europe. On the other hand it is maintained that if there is freedom of movement of the capital, is indispensable to establish the same freedom for the work, if a balanced relationship between work and capital is tried. Generally, many European and American, reject these reclamations and maintain that he is urgent to study and to apply measures that avoid the massive migration.

Globalización in relation to the TIC's

The globalización is the trial by which the increasing communication and interdependence between the different countries in the world unify markets, companies and cultures, through a series of social, economic and political processings that give a global character them. Thus, the methods of production and of capital movements form themselves to global scales, while the governments are losing attributions before which the company in network has denominated itself.

Against this background the technological development, and referring to me in himself to the incorporation of the Tics (Information technologies and the Communication) in each nation, will cause that the development in this arrives without taking too much, the competitiveness of a country in a globalized system depends to a great extent on the technology that it acquires, for that reason is so narrow the report between Tics and globalización.

References

1. 'Global Village, Partial Justice'. Ed. Cristianisme i Justícia, 2003
2. ↑ Globalización in the Dictionary
3. ↑ John Kenneth Galbraith American Capitalism
4. 'http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/ea8221ee-cd40-11dc-9b2b-000077b07658.html)' has called to complement the use of its traditional with fiscal policies, that is to say, Keynsian monetary policies to see Press release 08-08 (23 of January 2008) in http://www.imf.org/external/np/sec/pr/2008/pr0808.htm
5. ↑ Mark Weisbrot communication to conference of the Central bank of Venezuela, in: http://www.bcv.org.ve/c4/Conferencias.asp?Codigo=4491&Operacion=2&Sec=False
6. ↑ the highest military commander of EE.UU., general Richard Myers, says http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/spanish/international/newsid_4720000/4720923.stm “Long term the problem is more diplomatic and economic than military man”
7. ↑ Ronald Brownstein: The Civil Second War
8. ↑ as example of these new practices “partisan” can be mentioned the rejection to an agreement of Free trade between Chile and the USA on the part of the competing majority during the presidency of Mr. Clinton, with the declared intention to deny any positive result to him to its government. With the same reason, that opposition looked for to make difficult the resolution of problems with the government of Iran during that presidency. Another example is the way in what the present war in Iraq was imposed
9. ↑ Sachs, Jeffrey (2005). The End of Poverty. New York, New York: The Penguin Press. 1-59420-045-9.
10. ↑ World Bank, Poverty Rates, 1981 - 2002. Consulted 2007-06-04.
11. ↑ David Brooks, “Good News about Poverty”
12. ↑ “How Have the World's Poorest Fared Since the Early 1980s” by Shaohua Chen and Martin Ravallion.
13. 'Michel Chossudovsky, “'Global Falsehoods”
14. ↑ Guy Pfefferman, “The Eight Losers of Globalization”
15. 'Freedom House'
16. 'http://reason.com/news/show/34961.html' BAILEY, R. (2005).
17. 'BAILEY, R. (2005). Poor The may not be getting to richer but they plows living to longer.'
18. ↑ ScienceDirect
19. ↑ Oxford Leadership Academy.
20. ↑ [http:http://www.uis.unesco.org/template/pdf/cscl/IntlFlows_EN.pdf 2005 UNESCO report
21. ↑ Oxfam: Stop the dumping!
22. ↑ OECD Producer Support Estimate By Country
23. ↑ OECD Development IDA AT to Glance By Region
24. ↑ Cultivating Poverty The Impact of U.S. Cotton Subsidies on Africa
25. 'Six Reasons to Kill Farm Subsidies and Trade Barriers'
26. 'http://www.caretas.com.pe/2000/1615/columnas/mvll.phtml'
27. ↑ for example, Sachs, Jeffrey say: “One of the ironies of the recent success of China and India is the fear that… that success is obtained to cost of the EE.UU. Those fears are erroneous but, not only essentially even worse dangerous. They are erroneous because the world is not a fight of styles well “sum zero”… but one of “positive sum” The “in which the improvement of the technology and abilities can increase the standards of living to world level” End of Poverty (2005)
28. ↑ the Empire of Consumo| http://eduardogaleano.net/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=81&Itemid=34
29. ↑ COMPENDIUM 
 OF the SOCIAL DOCTRINES OF the CHURCH (points 361 to 376) in http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_councils/justpeace/documents/rc_pc_justpeace_doc_20060526_compendio-dott-soc_sp.html#La%20globalizaci%F3n:%20oportunidades%20y%20riesgos
30. '“'American talk of the death of French culture says dwells about them than U.S.” '| World news | The Guardian'
31. ↑ Joseph E. Stiglitz: The malaise in the globalización
32. ↑ the Inter-American Development Bank, for example, alleges that http://www.iadb.org/sds/SCS/site_2776_s.htm “it is not possible to advance in the sustainable and equitable growth without progressing in the legal certainty and the equality before the law of all the citizens”
33. ↑ for example: Agenda of Barcelona: http://www.realinstitutoelcano.org/analisis/660/IlianaAgendaBarcelona%20pdf.pdf
34. ↑ Factory on Democracy Human Rights and Rule of law - Informative Note
35. ↑ For example C. Fred Bersten in its communication to the meeting of the Trilateral Commission in Tokyo in the 2000 argument that is necessary to reconnoiter that the globalización has not only profits but also costs and victims, is necessary then to implement a system in order to remedy those problems. To see The Backlash Against Globalization http://www.trilateral.org/annmtgs/trialog/trlgtxts/t54/ber.htm
36. ↑ economic Growth without Rule of law
37. ↑ http://www.ije.com.mx/Articulos/Estado%20de%20derecho%20y....pdf
38. ↑ Rule of law and Human Development - Dialnet
39. 'About us, Program Rule of law for Latin America, Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung e.V'
40. 'http://www.economiasur.com/analisis/ParsonsFinalCrecimientoEc.html'
41. ↑ a CETIM report says: 12. The World Bank is had appropriate of all the concepts of the progressive movements. The fight against poverty, the crossing of being able and citizen participation, social development. this, now, beginning to be interested in the inequality… (.). in fact, he is atraves of an analysis of the dynamic ones of the senses of the words that can be unmasked and be denounced the policies that promote the triumph from the markets to the cost of the company. The fight against poverty and the inequality are necessary, of course, but through social and economic development, through surrounding the solidarity of the developed world… etc. (in English in the original one) http://www.cetim.ch/en/interventions_details.php?iid=240 But ahead CETIM it suggests the problem does not finish with that continuous appropriation but with the distortion with specific aims, for example: “to put in the bench to the companies of the State and to exonerate or to disguise the main responsibility that fits to them to the private transnational major companies in the matter of violation of the human rights” - http://www.cetim.ch/es/interventions_details.php?iid=281 -.
42. ↑ Larry Elliot and Dan Atkinson (The Age of Insecurity, P. 274, and P. 223) alleges that “the world-wide performance of the economy since the capital liberalized has been worse than when strongly it was controlled” and that “until now the yield of the liberalized capital has not fulfilled the expectations that woke up”
43. ↑ Global Foundation Democracy and Development
44. ↑ for a more formal analysis of the strategy of the Ngos, to see http://www.brookings.edu/papers/2007/07globaleconomics_moser.aspx
45. ↑ Gerald Epstein communication in: http://www.bcv.org.ve/c4/Conferencias.asp?Codigo=4491&Operacion=2&Sec=False
46. ↑ NCVO - The National for Council Voluntary Organizations - Welcome
47. ↑ NCVO - New report shows giving to charity is down
48. ↑ report of Oxfam on world-wide the agricultural sector:
49. 'http://harvardmagazine.com/2002/07/globalization-for-whom.html'
50. ↑ Another report of CETIM argues: “Like “the structural alignments”, the “fight against poverty” has as white main the middle classes - the privileged people and transforms to “the poor men” in potential allies of the “globalized classes”. The fight against poverty, a subject that is consensual by definition, causes that the development disappears as a national project of modernization and emancipation and eliminates the national elites, union as as much enterprise. The poor men transform themselves into plaintiffs of an exchange that is limited to consolidate a dualista company of rich poor men and
51. ↑ according to a report by the Institute For the Studies of Economy of Development of the University of the UN (UNU-WIDER) published the 2006, in the 2000, rich 10% but of the population was proprietor of 85% of the wealth of the world. Within which, rich 1% but own 40% of the total. In resistance, poor half but altogether owns only a 1% of the wealth of the world. Interestingly, even though the report confirms that the wealth is concentrated in the developed countries (that collectively own almost 90% of that wealth), much of the population of those countries this, teoreticamente, in a situation worse than the inhabitants of the developing countries, in which the debt levels which they have, especially between the middle classes, are so high that economically speaking, its “wealth” is negative| http://update.unu.edu/archive/issue44_22.htm
52. ↑ “it is another subject”. in http://www.bcv.org.ve/c4/Conferencias.asp?Codigo=4491&Operacion=2&Sec=False
53. ↑ by ejmeplo: http://www.theecologist.net/files/docshtm/index.asp
54. ↑ Ferrer, Aldo, Facts and fiction of the globalización, Fund of Economic Culture, Buenos Aires, 1997, l$p. 13.
55. ↑ Mc Luhan, Marshall, the galaxy of Gutenberg, Origin Planet, Mexico, 1985, l$p. 45.

Bibliography

• AGUILAR MONTEVERDE, Alonso. Globalización and Capitalismo. Mexico: Plaza & Janés, 2002, ISBN.
• BAUMAN, Zygmunt. The globalización: human consequences. Second editing in Spanish. Mexico: Fund of Economic Culture, 2002, ISBN-X.
• BRÜNNER, Jose Joaquin. Cultural Globalización and posmodernidad. First reimpresión. Santiago of Chile: Fund of Economic Culture, 1989, ISBN.
• FERRER, Aldo. Facts and fiction of the globalización, Fund of Economic Culture, Buenos Aires, 1997, ISBN.
• FRIEDMAN, Thomas L. The World is Flat: To Brief History of the Twenty-first Century, Farrar, Straus and Giroux, New York, 2005, ISBN.
• GHEMAWAT, Pankaj, Redefining the globalisation: the importance of the differences in a globalized world. Editings Deusto, Barcelona, 2008, ISBN 978-84-234-2606-5.
• GODIO, Julio. The world in which we lived: an analysis on the collapse of the real socialism and the meaning of the autorrevolución of the capital, Corregidor Editorial, Buenos Aires, 2000.
• IANNI, Octavio. Theories of the globalización. Mexico: 21st century Publishing, 1996, ISBN.
• NORBERG, Johan. In defense of global Capitalism, Publishing Union, Madrid, ISBN. Translation of original In Defense of Global Capitalism, I stamp, Sweden, 2001, ISBN.
• QUEIROLO, Jorge Hernán. Impact of the globalización in the countries and the people, ISBN 956 - 291 - 310 - 4.
• ROBINSON, William I. To Theory of Global Capitalism: Production, Class, and State in a Transnational World. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004, ISBN.
• WARD, Thomas. The literary theory: romanticism, krausismo and modernismo before the industrial globalización. Mississippi: University of Mississippi, “Romance Monographs”, nº 61, 2004,
• WOLF, Martin. Why Globalization Works, Yale University Press, ISBN.

It is also seen

• Centro-periphery
• Balance of trade
• Anticompetitive behavior
• Free trade: Milton Friedman, Johan Norberg
• Entertainment
• Antiglobalización
• Johan Norberg
• New Economy
• Permacultura
• Globalized society
• Development policy

External Links

Wikiquote

• Wikiquote lodges famous phrases of Globalización.
• Newspaper Index Globalization Forum.
• International index of globalización of 2004 (A.T. Kearney/Foreign Policy).
• Commanding Heights: For Battle the World Economy - Documentary online that shows the history of the globalización with interviews representatives of the positions in pro and against the same.
• To World Connected - Page Web in English in favor of the globalización of free market.
• Globalízate - Page Web in Spanish in favor of an alternative globalización.
• Wiki OtroMundoEsPosible.
• Globalisation is Good, of Johan Norberg - Documentary in Spanish in favor of the globalización of the free enterprise.
• Connecting Alternative - Summit Alternative EU-ALC in Vienna in May of 2006.
• 'Cato - Free trade' - Analyzes and articles on the commercial globalización.
• Articles on the Globalización.
• The news on the Globalización, its origin and its reflections in the life of people. By Inter Press Service.
• Cultura-Global.org - Analyzes on globalización and its impact in the Global Culture. Also in English.

Globalización and mundialización

• Globalización and mundialización.

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